Attention Deficit Hyper action Disorder agreeing to Singh (2002) is a developmental disorder that is brain based and most often affects children. This developmental disorder can be characterized as a disorder in which affects ones self control; original aspects comprise strangeness with attention, impulse control, and action levels usually diagnosed prior to the age of 7yrs. Of age (Willoughby, 2003).
There are primarily three sub-types of Adhd. Inattentive sub-type 1 is Adhd which those who manifest inattention without the proximity of hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). There is also Adhd sub-type 2 with symptomolgy connected to hyperactivity and impulsivity (Barkley, 2005). Finally there is Adhd combined sub-type (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). For the purpose of my paper, I will use data that represents all subtypes in discrete degrees and the affects of these difficulties upon the individual, educational, family, and communal improvement as well as issues of communal justice and cultural issues for those children who suffer from this disorder.
What Is Pre Occupational Therapy
Historically the modern symptoms of Adhd were first identified (Barkley 1996, Rafalovich 2001, & Stubbe 2001), by English doctor George Still in 1902 (Neufeld & Foy, 2006). Rafalovich (2001), explains that in a series of historical events from 1917-1918 in North America that led to an encephalitis outbreak there was a dramatic growth in investigate of characteristics that are similar to modern day Adhd symptomology. Straight through out the early years of investigate there was even investigate and investigations into medical conditions which promoted swelling in distinct aspects of the brain, which many believe led to impulsivity and hyperactivity (Stubbe, 2000). As investigate evolved so did the diagnostic criteria for the disorder; shaping identifiable factors believed to lead to the causation of Adhd (Barkley, 2005). Physiologically, there seems to be less dopamine and nor-epinephrine within the brains of those with Adhd and four genes that regulate dopamine have been identified as Adhd causal agents; any way a specific causal agent has not been confirmed (Barkley, 2005). Brain action is considerably lower in the pre-frontal lobe regions in those with Adhd and there is also decrease in blood flow (Hans, Henricksen & Bruhn, 1984), (Barkley, 2005). agreeing to Barkley (2005), psychological characteristics of Adhd are that it is about the "behavioral inhibition." These children do not benefit from what may happen later based upon what they do now; which can be compared to a "time near sightedness", (Barkley, 2005). They have strangeness identifying their past, making ready for the future, organizing, scheduling, and working independently, with communal and occupational issues (Barkley, 2005). It is these difficulties when intermingled with the improvement of the personel that could clearly cause great difficulties especially when enrolled in formalized schooling and onward into the demands of school and adulthood.
The prevalence rates concerning the analysis of Adhd has been from ranges of 4 % to 18 % depending upon the community, types of populations, and areas of analysis (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Adhd is one of the most common childhood disorders with 2.5 million children with this disorder (Barkley, 2005). Estimates show (Biederman, 1996), that nearly 6 % of boys and 1.5 % of girls have Adhd (Singh, 2002). It cost nearly 3.3 billion dollars to medically treat Adhd every year in the United States (Visser & Lesesne, 2005). Currently causation factors under consistent follow up agreeing to Barkley (2005) include;
1. Genetics
2. Premature Birth
3. Traumatic Brain Injury
4. Spine and Brain Infections
5. Early exposure to substances during pregnancy
6. Early exposure to lead
7. Less blood flow and lower brain activity
Because Adhd is a representation of corporal imperfections within the brain and no ifs ands or buts manifests a decrease of action in the pre-frontal lobe regions; distinct rehabilitation options with amphetamines, stimulants and non-amphetamines have been utilized to growth brain action (Barkley, 2005). The size and anomalies within the brain have been verified and examined Straight through many technological processes such as Positron Emission Tomography and Mri scanning (Vance & Luk, 2000). Other corporal abnormalities of improvement agreeing to Barkley (2005), comprise appearances of little deformities including; longer than average index finger, third toe that is longer than second toe, ears that are slightly lower upon the head, no earlobes or a furrowed tongue. Up to 80% of children suffering with Adhd will continue to struggle with this disorder into adolescents and as many as 50 to 60 percent will continue to struggle into adulthood (Barkley, 2005). With the affects upon a child's school, family, and communal environments a large emotional toll can be identified. Emotionally, children can feel isolated, angry, guilty, frustrated and many other emotions due to the disruption of relationships, opportunities and lack of clear decision production skills (Barkley, 2005). Many of these children can come to be depressed and exhibit anxiety (Barkley, 2005). Many affective behaviors comprise stubbornness, defiance and at times can be verbally or physically violent to others (Barkley, 2005).
According to Barkley (2005) nearly 57% of preschool children are likely to be rated as inattentive and over-reactive by their parents up to the age of four. As many as 40% agreeing to Barkley (2005), may have these problems for up to three to six months, concerning parents and teachers. agreeing to Lavigne, Gibbons, Christoffel, Rosenbaum and Binns (1996), however, it is estimated that 2% of preschool children truly meet the criteria for Adhd, and (Biederman, 1996), clarified that perhaps 10 % of all children meet diagnostic criteria for Adhd (Singh, 2002). Barkley clearly indicates that the earlier the symptoms of Adhd appear and the distance of time they last in childhood will determine the severity of its policy and analysis (Barkley, 2005). Individually there are many distressing problems for children suffering from this disorder. Some features that Barkley (2005) indicate are foremost to recognize as the personel child develops into school age include;
1. An emergence of high demanding ness of preschool age
2. Critical directive behavior by parents to operate circumstances
3. Problems reported by preschool / formal school staff concerning child's behavior
4. Problems with learning and reading
5. Decisions to keep a child an educational grade
6. Excessive temper tantrums / strangeness in getting child to do chores
7. Social exclusion from activities
According to Spira & Fischel (2005), within the pre-school environment at the age of 3 yrs. Old, children's concentration controls, and self operate mechanisms begin developing. Increased self operate and speech improvement continues from age 3yrs. Old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Self operate processes continue to well develop Straight through the age of 4yrs. Old (Spira & Fischel, 2005). These processes work together allowing the child to enunciate self-control and Straight through 4 yrs. Of age the child develops the ability to direct concentration to relavent environmental stimuli (Spira & Fischel, 2005). Together, the maintaining of concentration and operate over responses emerges and of policy is very foremost in identifying task's and working functionally within the educational environment, however; these processes indicated do not emerge for those with Adhd due to the manifestation of hyper-activity and impulsivity around the age of 3 to 4 yrs. Of age, and inattention manifesting near 5 to 6 yrs. Of age (Spira & Fischel, 2005). As children develop into school age and adolescents, Barkley (2005) indicated that 30 to 50 percent of children will be retained one grade during their school years. agreeing to Vance & Luk (2000), 20 to 30 percent of children with Adhd will manifest comorbidity with learning disorders; reading, arithmetic, writing or spelling. If a child is diagnosed with Adhd and guide Disorder the percentages growth for a co morbid learning disorder (Vance & Luk, 2000). One theoretical position (Velting & Whitehurst, 1997), is that agreeing to Spira and Fischel, (2005) those children with Adhd do not fetch the literacy skills principal for early reading and learning. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that the frustration due to lack of ability perpetuates acting out behaviors consistently witnessed by school staff of children with Adhd (Spira & Fischel, 2005).
As children move Straight through adolescents it is abundantly clear that with vast developmental changes; seeing ones role identity as clarified by Eric Erickson (Berger, 2006), relational dating, peer pressure, and other demands of adolescents come to be extraordinarily difficult with personel difficulties of impulsiveness, hyperactivity and inattentiveness (D. Moilanen Cmsw, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007). agreeing to Gordon (2006), adolescents continue to have many difficulties especially;
1. Disorganization
2. Planning long term assignments
3. Completing homework
4. Complying with parental rules.
5. Sustaining concentration and focus
Because adolescents are seeking to find a competent and salutary identity, conflicts with parental and scholastic systems can leave an teenage to feel diminished, angry and frustrated before the entry into adulthood (D. Moilanen Cmsw, Personal Communication, January 25, 2007).
Adulthood brings new challenges and agreeing to Jaffe, Benedictis, Segal & Segal, (2006), the following are just a few of the challenges for adults living with Adhd;
1. Managing money
2. "Zoning out in conversations"
3. Speaking without thinking
4. Procrastination
5. Becoming no ifs ands or buts frustrated
Eric Erickson in Berger (2006) clarifies his principles of Psycho-Social improvement and indicates that as early adults we want to find intimacy or we will face isolation. It seems clear that these adults due to their disability will continue to confront difficulties with their families, communal relationships, and negative personel perceptions onward into adulthood. These difficulties could place them at risk to come to be isolated.
The personel within their family is greatly impacted by this developmental disorder. agreeing to Barkley (2005) Adhd is 25 to 30% acquired by heredity, and if a parent has Adhd the child is 8 to 10 times more likely at acquiring the disorder. Barkley (2005) also indicated that parents at the beginning of preschool attend and manage their child fairly well, however; parents tend to lose what they feel as operate over their child the supplementary the child develops Straight through school. Parents can feel drained, overwhelmed and exhausted; even feeling depressed, and begin blaming themselves for their child's behavior (Barkley, 2005). Over time these difficulties can lead to perceptions by parents that may be less than distinct (Maniadaki, Sonuga, Kakouros, & Karaba, 2006).
Research shows that parental perceptions within the family can clearly have implications concerning how a child is treated and the negative affects and perceptions that work on the child's developmental stages (Maniadaki et al., 2006). agreeing to Maniadaki et al., (2006), parental perceptions do have principal impact upon children suffering from Adhd due to the likelihood of the parents not obtaining reasoning health services for their children; the strangeness parents had identifying the impact the child's behavior would have on the child's development; and the parents inability to recognize the severity of the child's symptoms, all have dramatic affects on the child's developmental processes. Siblings can also have negative perceptions of the child's behavior, affecting the degree of keep siblings bring to each other within a family. agreeing to Gordon (2006), siblings can feel sorry for their sibling with Adhd or they can get angry and resentful. These reactions generate dynamic challenges for any family and or personel dealing with Adhd. Other inherent hindering perceptions by parents within the family principles can be identified by comparing Erickson's, Psycho communal Developmental Perspectives (Berger, 2000). agreeing to Erickson, children from the age of 3 yrs. Old to 6 yrs. Of age will develop Straight through a series of challenges to parents, taking the "initiative" or "failing," bringing feelings of "guilt" (Berger, 2000). When the child's animated behavior takes place however, as Camparo, Christensen, Buhrmester & Hinshaw, (1994) states, that parents may not allow these children to have the benefit of the doubt, due to past inordinate behavior under normal circumstances, and the parents may see their child as an "easy target." agreeing to the evidence, miscalculating the child's natural animated behavior could take place and disallow the child to develop in a healthy, "guilt free" way, having principal affects on their psycho-social development. inordinate amounts of guilt can produce principal amounts of anxiety and depression (Burns, 1990). These negative processes in changeable degrees can clearly lead to negative affects on communal and emotional processes (Burns, 1990).
Other family processes affecting Adhd and improvement agreeing to Peris & Hinshaw (2003), is that core symptoms of impulse operate and inattention are primarily heritable, and parental practices do not guarantee principal (Barkley, 1998; Hinshaw 1994; Johnston & Mash, 2001), causation for Adhd. However, the family interaction patterns and external influences may have a principal impact on severity and the developmental policy of Adhd (Peris & Hinshaw, 2003). Furthermore, evidence suggests (Barkley, 1985; Battle & Lacey, 1972; Buhrmester, Camparo, Christensen, Gonsalez, & Hinshaw, 1992; Campbell, 1973; Cunningham & Barkley, 1979; MacDonald, 1988; Mash & Johnston, 1982; Tallmadge & Barkley, 1983) that mothers of Adhd children are less affectionate. Other disturbing findings indicate that parents can be more critically demanding and parents independently record a greater tendency to blame their Adhd child for problems they no ifs ands or buts had with their spouses; thus proving supplementary that family systemic patterns can play a major role in the perpetuation and affects of Adhd upon child improvement (Camparo et al., 1994). Of policy these processes clearly work on a school-age child within their families and external systems in ways which sell out a child's self worth, confidence, and abilities to properly interact and function within their environment; proving this, Dumas & Pelletier (1999) indicated that pre-adolescents were found to have lower levels of self esteem in areas of scholastic competence, behavioral conduct, and communal acceptance.
According to Barkley (2005), those with Adhd, at times do not give themselves time to rate their emotions objectively before a reaction, fail to isolate their feelings from fact. Being able to internalize our emotions, rate them, and analyze them before displaying them publicly help in self operate and is difficult for those suffering from Adhd (Barkley, 2005). Those who suffer from Adhd develop a pattern of communal rejection due to inappropriate interactions beginning during formalized schooling agreeing to Barkley (2005). agreeing to Nixon (2001), those children suffering from Adhd lack principal communal skills that work on the ability of their interactions, such as; verbal & corporal aggression, disruptive attempts to enter new groups, negative classroom behaviors, being quick tempered and violating the rules. Nixon (2001) presents more evidence that communal cognition is clearly affected and children with Adhd can have great strangeness in production clear interpretations of their environmental interactions with others. These variables clearly lead to inhibited communal contact, and a dysfunction in psycho-social development. agreeing to Eric Erickson in Berger (2000), he clearly indicates that formalized school age children from 7 to 11 years old need to develop confidence that allow them to feel as if they have mastered "Industry" (Berger, 2000). If this stage is not mastered, they may feel inferior (Berger, 2000). How can these children who are excluded due to their Adhd manifestations of behavior, be given the opening to participate and prove themselves to resist negative aspects of "Inferiority?" As these children develop into adolescents and adults, one can presume when comparing Adhd behavior and communal reactions with the Erickson Psycho-Social Framework (Berger, 2000). Erickson states that adolescents attempt to find their roles in the world and if they fail, role blurring develops (Berger, 2000). blurring for those suffering from Adhd would come no ifs ands or buts due to their exclusion from communal groups and activities (Barkley, 2005). In order for adolescents to find their role and their identity; they must interact with others and feel accepted in their participation (Berger, 2000). supplementary into adulthood Erickson in Berger (2000), indicates that as adult's, individuals will seek intimacy with others or come to be isolated. The factor of isolation relates to the extent in which those developing fear rejection and frustration (Berger, 2000). Unfortunately, prior communal experiences of those suffering from Adhd can be littered with communal rejection, feelings of frustration and unacceptance due to impulsiveness and hyperactive behaviors (Barkley, 2005). Furthermore, (Pope, Bierman, & Mumma, 1999), these authors agreeing to Nixon (2001), also claim that hyperactivity and the inattentive / teenage nature of a child's behavior with Adhd contributes greatly to interpersonal problems.
In regards to communal justice and cultural issues; agreeing to Bender (2006), African American children may be under represented and under diagnosed in regards to Adhd. Experts such as (Dr. Rahn Bailey, 2006) agreeing to Bender (2006), claim that as science is pursuing new technological processes to diagnose and treat Adhd, cultures like the African American society are subjected to propaganda, suspicion due to past and current discrimination, and negative stereotyping concerning reasoning illness; thus forming cultural decisions to avoid analysis and rehabilitation of Adhd. This cultural-lens, based upon discriminatory and fear based experiences with the dominant culture dis-allows ethical decisions to help and help African American children (Bender, 2006). These decisions agreeing to experts (Bailey, 2006), is contributing to high rates of African American children disproportionately over represented in healthful programs and disproportionate amounts of African American children over represented in the criminal justice principles (Bender, 2006). The issues of classism and impoverishment can also be a topic of concern concerning those who suffer from Adhd. agreeing to Visser & Lesesne, (2005), Adhd analysis among males was reported significantly more often in families with incomes below the poverty threshold than in families with incomes at or above the poverty threshold. Here again, poverty makes a clear and consistent statement of risk for our developing children.
In conclusion, I believe that Adhd seems to be an elusive, devastating, developmental disorder. This disorder for my self is so destructive because of its manifesting elements of hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattentiveness. These variables are processes that if represented to distinct degrees are perfect for destroying social, educational, emotional and personel improvement over the life span. Because our lives are so dependent upon not just our biological building but also our communal and environmental interaction; this disorder can be serious and detrimentally disruptive. I do any way believe that new technologies are hopeful in understanding this disability in greater measures. I also have gained ideas concerning the new data concerning neuro-plastisity and the changing mind based upon therapeutic thought. I feel this may be a inherent frontier of investigate that should be a priority in good understanding how the brain can turn forms; especially the pre-frontal cortex regions.
L.J. Riley Jr. Bsw, Llmsw
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